The Corporation and the Twentieth Century

information by varying the frequency of the waveform, the width of the channel in frequency space determines how much information can be encoded. Wider channels mean more informa- tion and thus higher fidelity and a higher signal-to-noise ratio. RCA had wanted to limit FM channels to 40 kHz, but the FCC granted the full 200 kHz Armstrong requested. Television needs to transmit far more information, and a TV channel would be six MHz wide (Maclaurin 1949, p. 229).

343. Sterling and Keith (2008, p, 54). 344. Lessing (1969, p. 207).

345. Slotten (2000, pp. 115–44).

346. Slotten (2000, p. 125).

347. Lessing (1969, p. 214); Lewis (1991, pp. 304–5).

348. The commission rescinded its 1940 requirement that every FM station air at least two hours of original programming. Some 80 percent of applicants for FM licenses in 1945 were owners of AM stations in the same market (Boddy 1990, p. 37).

349. Already by 1934, Armstrong had demonstrated multiplexing, the ability to broadcast multiple streams of information on the same channel. From his experimental station on the 85th floor of the Empire State Building, he was able to transmit simultaneously the programs of both the Red and Blue networks, along with a facsimile of the front page of the New York Times.

350. Sterling (1968); Inglis (1990, pp. 141–45).

351. Lessing (1969, pp. 231–48); Lewis (1991, pp. 309–27).

352. Graham (1986, p. 59). The NDRC let numerous contracts for the development of tele-

vision itself, principally in connection with a program for guided missiles that never reached fruition during the war. That research did indeed yield a more sensitive camera tube. But after the war, the new tube was discarded because its characteristics were unsuited to commercial broadcasting (Bannister 2001, pp. 133–66).

Notes to Chapter 8 641

353. Levy (1981, p. 99).

354. Levy (1981, p. 116).

355. “RCA’s Television,” Fortune, September 1948, p. 83.

356. Levy (1981, p. 124).

357. Klepper and Simons (2000).

358. Graham (1986).

359. Langlois and Robertson (1995, pp. 77–84).

360. Graham (1986, p. 61).

361. Bilby (1986, pp. 175–98); Fisher and Fisher (1996, pp. 309–27).

362. Coy was an executive of the Washington Post Company, which owned stations affiliated

with the CBS network. The outgoing chair, a New Dealer called Charles Denny, had left to become chief counsel of NBC. This raised enough hackles in Washington that Congress was forced to pass a law requiring that thenceforth FCC staff would have to wait a year before cash- ing in with industry.

363. Bilby (1986, p. 184).

364. Klepper (2016, p. 42).

365. Levy (1981, p. 116).

366. Levy (1981, pp. 129–30).

367. United States v. Radio Corporation of America, 1958 Trade Cas. ¶69, 164 (S.D. N.Y. 1958). 368. Levy (1981, pp. 159–60).

369. Johnstone (1999, p. 12). A similar compulsory-licensing order against Xerox would give Japan access to copier patents as well (Scherer 1992, p. 187).

370. Louis Johnston and Samuel H. Williamson, “What Was the U.S. GDP Then?” Measur- ing Worth, https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/ (accessed October 19, 2020).

371. Goldin and Katz (2009, p. 84).

372. This point has long been recognized in the context of Europe and Japan, whose even more rapid growth reflected “the catch-up for ground lost in two world wars and in the most severe economic depression to date” (Crafts and Toniolo 1996, p. 3).

373. “Table 1: Persons Obtaining Lawful Permanent Residence Status: Fiscal Years 1820 to 2018,” US Department of Homeland Security, https://www.dhs.gov/immigration-statistics /yearbook/2018/table1 (accessed October 19, 2020).

374. Jones and Tertilt (2008, p. 177). Replacement level is 2.1 children per female.

375. Goldin and Katz (2009) understand the fall in the returns to schooling in terms of the increased supply of skilled labor attendant on the high-school movement of the early century. But it is far from clear that the precipitous fall in those returns between 1939 and 1949 can be accounted for solely by a supply-side effect. The American workforce would become more edu- cated over the postwar era, continuing the upward trend: in 1948, 12.3 percent of male workers had had at least a year of college; by 1959, that number was 18.3 percent; and by 1976, it was 32.5 percent. The G. I. Bill, which subsidized college education for veterans, accounts for some of the increase in schooling. On the whole, however, it “can at most explain only a small share of the postwar prosperity in the United States” (Rockoff 1998, pp. 112–13).

376. Jones and Tertilt (2008).

377. US National Center for Health Statistics (1966, Table 1–7). 378. Schweitzer (1980, p. 90).

642 Notes to Chapter 8

379. Zhao (2014). For tax rates see “SOI Tax Stats: Historical Table 23,” Internal Revenue Service, https://www.irs.gov/statistics/soi-tax-stats-historical-table-23 (accessed October 22, 2020).

380. Rockoff (1998, p. 98).

381. Greenwood, Seshadri, and Vandenbroucke (2005).

382. Lebergott (1993, Tables II.14, II.19).

383. Gordon (2016, Table 10–3).

384. Gordon (2016, p. 361).