The Corporation and the Twentieth Century

385. Lebergott (1993, Table II.26).

386. Glaeser (2011, p. 173); Jackson (1987, p. 249). The chair of the committee that recom-

mended the interstate highway system was retired general Lucius D. Clay, who had been in charge of German reconstruction after the war. By this time, he was a member of the board of directors of GM.

387. Jackson (1987, p. 232).

388. Glaeser (2011, pp. 174–76); Halberstam (1993, pp. 131–42).

389. So long, of course, as the buyers were white. The FHA, along with all other government

agencies, had a conscious policy of discriminating against African Americans. The FHA would refuse to guarantee any homes in a development if even one was sold to blacks. The agency also refused to guarantee mortgages in segregated all-black developments (Rothstein 2017).

390. Halberstam (1993, pp. 153–54).

391. Levinson (2011, p. 249).

392. Gordon (2016, p. 341).

393. Halberstam (1993, pp. 173–79); Kaszynski (2000, pp. 156–61). 394. Love (1995, pp. 14–22).

395. In the movie The Founder (2016), the brothers outline the kitchen in chalk on a tennis court to optimize the layout as the staff simulates production. This actually happened, though in reality an overnight rain erased the design before a draftsman could copy it down.

396. Galbraith (1958, p. 123).

397. Mumford (1961, p. 486).

398. Reynolds was inspired by the Westlake district of Daly City, California, south of San

Francisco, which was developed along the lines of Levittown, albeit more densely. A glance at Zillow suggests that the Westlake district today is an attractive and indeed charming neighbor- hood, and that a box of ticky tacky will now set you back at least $1 million.

399. Galbraith (1958, pp. 154, 159). This kind of observation sounds like the tropes of someone who knows his Veblen by heart but has never lived in a suburb. William H. Whyte (1956, pp. 313– 14), another prominent contemporary critic of 1950s suburbia, is far more astute in observing that the “other-directedness” of suburbanites actually caused them to “keep down” rather than keep up with the Joneses—to refrain from conspicuous purchases that would make them stand out as different, largely out of a concern not to be seen as upstaging the neighbors.

400. Riesman (1950).

401. Mumford (1961, p. 486).

402. Marcuse (1964, p. 32). Marcuse and his followers were fortunate that they themselves

were exempted from false consciousness. 403. Packard (1957).

Notes to Chapter 8 643

404. Sterling and Kittross (1978, pp. 271–72).

405. Goodwin (1988, p. 46).

406. Fastow (1977, p. 521).

407. Noll, Peck, and McGowan (1973, p. 15).

408. Quoted, among many other places, in Hazlett (2017, p. 13). 409. Noll, Peck, and McGowan (1973, pp. 97–120).

410. For example, high-powered stations could have been set up in, say, New Haven to reach viewers from Boston to Philadelphia. This would have created the scale necessary for multiple networks to operate. The FCC chose instead to locate lower-powered stations in each North- eastern city of any size, thus idling available channels because of geographical interference (Ha- zlett 2017, p. 93). By using repeater stations, abandoning all localism in broadcasting might have allowed all homes in the country to receive at least six VHF stations, as many as were actually available only in New York and Los Angeles (Noll, Peck and McGowan 1973, p. 116).

411. White (1988, pp. 104–11).

412. Sterling and Kittross (1978, p. 296).

413. White (1992).

414. Edgerton and Pratt (1983).

415. Fastow (1977); Noll, Peck, and McGowan (1973, pp. 63–67).

416. Edgerton and Pratt (1983, pp. 15–18). Using antitrust threats against the networks had

been first suggested by Jeb Stuart Magruder in a memo to H. R. Haldeman in 1969.

417. Sterling and Kittross (1978, p. 288).

418. Shlaes (2019, p. 35). See also William Safire, “The Cold War’s Hot Kitchen,” New York

Times, July 23, 2009.

419. Halberstam (1993, p. 707).

420. Haynes and Klehr (1999, pp. 8–16).

421. The episode ruined the careers and tainted the reputations of some of America’s most

creative minds, a great many of whom were in fact or had at one time been Communists or Communist sympathizers. Some 10,000 people lost their jobs, about 2,000 of them in govern- ment. More than a hundred people were convicted of subversion under the 1940 Smith Act, and a handful were convicted of being spies. Precisely two were executed for espionage: Julius and Ethel Rosenberg (Herman 2000, pp. 4–5).

422. Yates ([1961] 2008, p. 61).

423. Yates ([1961] 2008, p. 207).

424. Whyte (1956, p. 12, emphasis original).

425. In fact, a 1983 survey of Harvard MBAs, going back to classes of the early 1940s, found

that a third were self-employed. Half worked for companies of fewer than 500 workers, and only 6 percent worked for companies with more than 100,000 employees. Another survey in the 1960s showed that no more than 55 percent wanted an administrative career and many were interested in entrepreneurship (Bhidé 2000, p. xii).

426. Whyte (1956, pp. 64, 68).

427. Arnold (1937, pp. 38–39).