C++ Primer Plus

Usually, input and output can be handled more efficiently by using a buffer. A buffer is a block of memory used as an intermediate, temporary storage facility for the transfer of information from a device to a program or from a program to a device. Typically, devices such as disk drives transfer information in blocks of 512 bytes or more, whereas programs often process information 1 byte at a time. The buffer helps match these two disparate rates of information transfer. For example, assume that a program is supposed to count the number of dollar signs in a hard-disk file. The program could read one character from the file, process it, read the next character from the file, and so on. Reading a file a character at a time from a disk requires a lot of hardware activity and is slow. The buffered approach is to read a large chunk from the disk, store the chunk in the buffer, and read the buffer one character at a time. Because it is much quicker to read individual bytes of data from memory than from a hard disk, this approach is much faster as well as easier on the hardware. Of course, after the program reaches the end of the buffer, the program should then read another chunk of data from the disk. The principle is similar to that of a water reservoir that collects megagallons of runoff water during a big storm and then feeds water to your home at a more civilized rate of flow (see Figure 17.2). Similarly, on output, a program can first fill the buffer and then transfer the entire block of data to a hard disk, clearing the buffer for the next batch of output. This is called flushing the buffer. Perhaps you can come up with your own plumbing-based analogy for that process.

Figure 17.2. A stream with a buffer.

Keyboard input provides one character at a time, so in that case, a program doesn’t need a buffer to help match different data transfer rates. However, buffered keyboard input allows the user to back up and correct input before transmitting it to a program. A C++ program normally flushes the input buffer when you press Enter. That’s why the examples in this book don’t begin processing input until you press Enter. For output to the display, a C++ program normally flushes the output buffer when you transmit a newline character. Depending on the implementation, a program may flush input on other occasions, too, such as at impending input. That is, when a program reaches an input statement, it flushes any output currently in the output buffer. C++ implementations that are consistent with ANSI C should behave in that manner.

Streams, Buffers, and the iostream File

The business of managing streams and buffers can get a bit complicated, but including the iostream (formerly iostream.h) file brings in several classes designed to implement and manage streams and buffers for you. The C++98 version of C++ I/O defines class templates in order to support both char and wchar_t data. C++11 adds char16_t and char32_t specializations. By using the typedef facility, C++ makes the char specializations of these templates mimic the traditional non-template I/O implementation. Here are some of those classes (see Figure 17.3):

• The streambuf class provides memory for a buffer, along with class methods for filling the buffer, accessing buffer contents, flushing the buffer, and managing the buffer memory.

• The ios_base class represents general properties of a stream, such as whether it’s open for reading and whether it’s a binary or a text stream.

• The ios class is based on ios_base, and it includes a pointer member to a streambuf object.

• The ostream class derives from the ios class and provides output methods.

• The istream class derives from the ios class and provides input methods.

• The iostream class is based on the istream and ostream classes and thus inherits both input and output methods.

Figure 17.3. Some I/O classes.

To use these facilities, you use objects of the appropriate classes. For example, you use an ostream object such as cout to handle output. Creating such an object opens a stream, automatically creates a buffer, and associates it with the stream. It also makes the class member functions available to you.

Redefining I/O