C++ Primer Plus

The standard input and output streams normally connect to the keyboard and the screen. But many operating systems, including Unix, Linux, and Windows, support redirection, a facility that lets you change the associations for the standard input and the standard output. Suppose, for example, that you have an executable Windows command prompt C++ program called counter.exe that counts the number of characters in its input and reports the result. (From most versions of Windows you can select Start, Programs and then click the Command Prompt icon to open a command-prompt window.) A sample run might look like this:

C>counter

Hello

and goodbye!

Control-Z          << simulated end-of-file

Input contained 19 characters.

C>

In this case, input came from the keyboard, and output went to the screen.

With input redirection (<) and output redirection (>), you can use the same program to count the number of characters in the oklahoma file and to place the results in the cow_cnt file:

C>counter cow_cnt

C>

The cow_cnt part of the command line associates the standard output with the cow_cnt file, causing cout to send output to that file instead of to the screen. That is, the operating system changes the outflow end connection of the output stream, leaving its inflow end still connected to the program. DOS, Windows command-prompt mode, Linux, and Unix automatically recognize this redirection syntax. (All of these other than early forms of DOS permit optional space characters between the redirection operators and the filenames.)

The standard output stream, represented by cout, is the normal channel for program output. The standard error streams (represented by cerr and clog) are intended for a program’s error messages. By default, all three of these objects are typically sent to the monitor. But redirecting the standard output doesn’t affect cerr or clog; thus, if you use one of these objects to print an error message, a program will display the error message on the screen even if the regular cout output is redirected elsewhere. For example, consider this code fragment:

if (success)

    std::cout << "Here come the goodies!\n";

else

{

    std::cerr << "Something horrible has happened.\n";

    exit(1);

}

If redirection is not in effect, whichever message is selected is displayed onscreen. If, however, the program output has been redirected to a file, the first message, if selected, would go to the file but the second message, if selected, would go to the screen. By the way, some operating systems permit redirecting the standard error, too. In Unix and Linux, for example, the 2> operator redirects the standard error.

Output with cout

As mentioned previously, C++ considers output to be a stream of bytes. (Depending on the implementation and platform, these may be 8-bit, 16-bit, or 32-bit bytes, but they’re bytes nonetheless.) But many kinds of data in a program are organized into larger units than a single byte. An int type, for example, may be represented by a 16-bit or 32-bit binary value. And a double value may be represented by 64 bits of binary data. But when you send a stream of bytes to a screen, you want each byte to represent a character value. That is, to display the number -2.34 onscreen, you should send the five characters -, 2, ., 3, and 4 to the screen, and not the internal 64-bit floating-point representation of that value. Therefore, one of the most important tasks facing the ostream class is converting numeric types, such as int or float, into a stream of characters that represents the values in text form. That is, the ostream class translates the internal representation of data as binary bit patterns to an output stream of character bytes. (Some day we may have bionic implants to enable us to interpret binary data directly. I leave that development as another exercise for the reader.) To perform these translation tasks, the ostream class provides several class methods. We’ll look at them now, summarizing methods used throughout the book and describing additional methods that provide finer control over the appearance of the output.

The Overloaded << Operator

Most often, this book has used cout with the << operator, also called the insertion operator:

int clients = 22;

cout << clients;