Born to Be Good: The Science of a Meaningful Life

perhaps the most mortifying experiment: D. Shearn et al., “Facial Coloration and Temperature Responses in Blushing,” Psychophysiology 27 (1990): 687–93.

and one in line with Darwin-inspired analyses of emotional displays as involuntary, truthful signs: Ekman, “Facial Expression and Emotion” A. J. Fridlund, Human Facial Expression: An Evolutionary View (San Diego: Academic Press, 1994). D. Keltner and A. Kring, “Emotion, Social Function, and Psychopathology,” General Psychological Review 2 (1998): 320–42.

Consider the kiss: J. Foer, “The Kiss of Life,” The New York Times, February 14, 2006.

documented by: Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Human Ethology.

Frans de Waal has devoted thousands of hours to the study of what different primates: de Waal and van Roosmalen, “Reconciliation and Consolation.”

When I reviewed forty studies of appeasement and reconciliation processes across species: Keltner and Buswell, “Embarrassment: Its Distinct Form.”

the loss of body control (the prosaic fart or stumble): For one study that has characterized the different causes of embarrassment, see R. S. Miller, “The Nature and Severity of Self-Reported Embarrassing Circumstances,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18 (1992): 190–98.

I concentrated on young boys prone to violence: D. Keltner, T. Moffitt, and M. Stouthhamer-Loeber, “Facial Expressions of Emotion and Psychopathology in Adolescent Boys,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 104 (1995): 644–52.

Neuroscientist James Blair has followed up on this work on embarrassment and violence by studying “acquired sociopathy”: R. J. R. Blair and L. Cipolotti, “Impaired Social Response Reversal: A Case of ‘Acquired Sociopathy,’” Brain 123 (2000): 1122–41.

Like J. S., Muybridge had damaged his orbitofrontal cortex, which might be thought of as a command center for the moral sentiments: Edmund T. Rolls, The Brain and Emotion (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).

the amygdala, a small, almond-shaped part of the midbrain: Joseph LeDoux, The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996).

It receives information from the cingulate cortex: For a review, see R. J. Davidson, D. Pizzagalli, J. B. Nitschke, and N. H. Kalin, “Parsing the Subcomponents of Emotion and Disorders: Perspective from Affective Neuroscience,” in Handbook of Affective Sciences, 8–24.

Soft, velvety touch to the arm: E. T. Rolls, “The Orbitofrontal Cortex and Reward,” Cerebral Cortex 10 (2000): 284–94.

“He is fitful”: J. M. Harlow, “Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head,” History of Psychiatry 4 (1993): 274–81.

In research with Jennifer Beer: J. Beer et al., “The Regulatory Function of Self-Conscious Emotion: Insights from Patients with Orbitofrontal Damage,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85 (2003): 594–604.

They resembled psychopaths: R. J. R. Blair, R. L. Jones, F. Clark, and M. Smith, “The Psychopathic Individual: A Lack of Responsiveness to Distress Cues?” Psychophysiology 34, no. 2 (1997): 192–98.

“When man is born”: Lao Tzu, Tao Te Ching (New York: Penguin, 1963), Book II. LXXVI.

SMILE

 

Greek artisans: Agnus Trumble, A Brief History of the Smile (New York: Basic Books, 2004), 11–18.

What does the smile mean?: M. Frank, P. Ekman, and W. V. Friesen, “Behavioral Markers and Recognizability of the Smile of Enjoyment,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 (1993): 83–93; A. J. Fridlund, “Sociality of Solitary Smiling: Potentiation by an Implicit Audience,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60 (1991): 229–40.

If the right kind of smile is synonymous with happiness: D. Keltner et al., “Facial Expression of Emotion,” Handbook of Affective Science, ed. Richard Davidson, Klaus Scherer, and Hill H. Goldsmith, (London: Oxford University Press, 2003), 415–32.

Charles Darwin’s analysis of the smile: Darwin, Expression, chap. 8.

In her careful observations of primates: S. Preuschoft and J. A. R.A. M. Van Hooff, “The Social Function of ‘Smile’ and ‘Laughter:’ Variations across Primate Species and Societies,” in Where Nature Meets Culture: Nonverbal Communication in Social Interaction, ed. U. Segerstråle and P. Molnár, (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1997), 171–89.