Where the Iron Crosses Grow

Yet the build-up of the Black Sea Fleet and the naval base at Sevastopol contributed to tensions with Britain and France, which supported the Ottoman Empire. When another war erupted with the Ottomans, a Russian naval squadron led by Admiral Pavel Nakhimov easily crushed an Ottoman squadron at the battle of Sinope in November 1853, but this served as justification for Britain and France to declare war on Russia four months later. It is revealing that the primary objective of the Anglo-French expeditionary forces in the subsequent Crimean War was to destroy the Russian Black Sea Fleet and its base at Sevastopol, which were regarded as the Russian “center of gravity” for further aggression against the Ottomans. The year-long siege of Sevastopol destroyed Russian naval power in the Black Sea; most of the base was laid waste and 14 of 15 ships of the line and four of six frigates were scuttled in the roadstead. After the fall of Sevastopol to Anglo-French forces in September 1855, the Treaty of Paris, signed in March 1856, limited the Black Sea Fleet to only ten small warships with a maximum combined tonnage of 5,600 tons – less than 10 percent of its pre-war tonnage. The treaty also limited Russia’s ability to enlarge existing naval bases in the Black Sea and to construct new coastal fortifications.

Although Russia was angered by this punitive peace settlement, it was not until 1871 that Tsar Aleksandr II dared to abrogate the naval clauses of the treaty, but then left it to his son to begin rebuilding Russian naval power in the Black Sea during the 1880s. The weakness of Russia’s industrial base made the resurrection of the Black Sea Fleet a long, drawnout process and it was not until June 1883 that the dockyard at Sevastopol was capable of beginning construction on the Ekaterina II-class predreadnought battleships. Nevertheless, most warships of the Black Sea Fleet were still built at Nikolayev, not Sevastopol. Much of the German population that had supported development of the Crimea began to migrate to the United States after Tsar Aleksandr II decided in 1872 to remove their exemption from conscription into the Russian Army. More Russians were brought in to “Russify” the Crimea, but these also included disgruntled workers from cities that brought unrest with them. In June 1905, the Black Sea Fleet was struck by the mutiny of the crew of the predreadnought battleship Potemkin, which then spread to other warships in the fleet. Although the revolt was eventually suppressed, it brought out an important political reality in the Crimea. Whereas agitation in the rest of Russia during the Revolution of 1905 was predominantly in the urban proletariat, the Crimean population was primarily agricultural and not disposed to revolution, but the sailors of the Black Sea Fleet were a nexus of unrest.

When World War I erupted in August 1914, the Black Sea Fleet had a clear superiority over the Ottoman Navy, with nine pre-dreadnought battleships versus only two pre-dreadnoughts Turkey acquired from Germany. However, the German decision to transfer the modern battlecruiser Goeben to Turkish service eliminated the Russian naval advantage. Adding insult to injury, the Goeben (renamed Yavuz) boldly bombarded Sevastopol in October 1914, demonstrating the inability of the Black Sea Fleet to even protect its main naval base. It was not until the two Imperatritsa Mariya-class dreadnoughts entered service a year later that the Black Sea Fleet gained some measure of superiority. However, the lead dreadnought, the Imperatritsa Mariya, suffered a magazine explosion and capsized in Sevastopol harbor in October 1916. Given the scale of the Tsarist investment of resources in the Black Sea Fleet and the naval base at Sevastopol, the return for the Russian war effort was minimal. When the Tsar was overthrown by the February Revolution in March 1917, the sailors of the Black Sea Fleet were quickly radicalized and were hostile to the Provisional Government. Sailor committees demonstrated their revolutionary fervor by renaming the two new dreadnoughts in Sevastopol: the Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya became the Svobodnya Rossiya (Free Russia) and the Imperator Aleksandr III became the Volya (Freedom).