The Historians' History of the World 06

Naudet, J., Histoire de la monarchie des Goths en Italie, Paris, 1810.—Neumann, C., Weltstellung des byzantinischen Reiches, Heidelberg, 1894; Die Grundherrschaft der römischen Republik, Strassburg, 1900.—Niccolini, G., Fasti tribunorum plebis ab anno 269 ad annum 731, Studi storici, 1895.—Nichols, F. M., The Marvels of Rome, London, 1889 (an English translation from the Latin of the twelfth century guide-book).—Niebuhr, B. G., Römische Geschichte, Berlin, 1811-1832, 3 vols.; new edition, 1873; English translation by W. Smith, L. Schmitz, J. C. Hare, and C. Thirlwall, The History of Rome, London, 1859, 3 vols.; Lectures on the History of Rome from the First Punic War to the death of Constantine, edited by L. Schmitz from Niebuhr’s lectures, London, 1844, 2 vols.; Vorträge über die römische Geschichte, edited by Isler, Berlin, 1846-1848, 3 vols.; Vorträge über alte Geschichte, edited by M. Niebuhr, Berlin, 1847-1851, 3 vols.; English translation by L. Schmitz, Lectures on Ancient History, London, 1852; Vorträge über römische Altertümer, edited by Isler, Berlin, 1858; contributions to the Geschichte der Stadt Rom, compiled by Bunsen, Platner, and others, Stuttgart, 1830-1843, 3 vols.; Corpus Scriptorus Historiæ Byzantiæ, see Byzantine History.

Berthold G. Niebuhr was born at Copenhagen, August 27th, 1776. In his early life he was secretary to the minister of finance of Denmark, and afterwards director of the Bank. In 1806 he removed to Berlin, where he was councillor of state in 1808, and upon the foundation of the University of Berlin in 1810 was named as professor of history. From 1816 to 1824 he resided in Rome as ambassador of Prussia, profiting by his sojourn in the opportunity to make important researches in Roman history and philology. On his return he accepted a professorship at the University of Bonn, where he remained until his death, January 2nd, 1831. The critical methods of Niebuhr began a new era in the whole science of history; or, as Macaulay says, in the “history of European intelligence.” His Roman history appeared first in 1811, being made up primarily from lectures delivered at the University of Berlin during the winter of the same year. Various causes worked together to make Niebuhr’s achievement possible, his broad scholarship, his experience in political, judicial, economic, and even military questions—his acquaintance with Rome, its land and its people, his knowledge of persons gained through his travels and diplomatic positions, and above all his rare gift of combination and his comprehensive outlook. Niebuhr’s work stands for all time as an example of true historical criticism; his object can best be made plain in his own words: “We must strive to single out fable and falsification, and train our glance to recognise the outlines of truth freed from every gloss. The identification of fable and the refutation of deceit may be enough for the critic; he desires only to expose misleading accounts. The historian needs something positive; he must at least discover the connection of facts with some probability and discover a more probable narrative in place of that which is sacrificed to his convictions.”

Niese, B., Grundriss der römischen Geschichte nebst Quellenkunde, 1896, 2nd edition; De annalibus Romanis, 2 programme, Marburg.—Nisard, D., Les quatre grands historiens latins, Paris, 1874.—Nitzsch, K. W., Die römische Annalistik, von ihren ersten Aufängen bis zu Valerius Antias, Berlin, 1873; Die Geschichte der römischen Republik, edited by Thouret, Berlin, 1884-1885, 2 vols.

Oberhammer, E., Bericht über Landes- und Völkerkunde.—Œlsner, Zur Chronologie der italienischen Ereignisse, in his Jahrbücher des fränkischen Reiches unter König Pippin, Leipsic, 1871.—Oman, C. W. C., The Byzantine Empire (Story of the Nations), London, 1892; A History of Europe from 476-918, London, 1893.—Ozanam, A. F., La Civilisation au Vᵐᵉ siècle, Paris, 1855; English translation, History of Civilisation in the Fifth Century, London and Philadelphia, 1867, 2 vols.

Pabst, H., Geschichte des Langobardenherzogtums, in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, 1862, 2 vols.—Pagi, Antoine, Critica historico-chronologica, Geneva, 1689-1705, 4 vols.—Pais, Ettore, Storia di Roma, forming Part II of his Storia d’Italia dei tempi più antichi, Turin, 1894-1899.—Pallmann, R., Geschichte der Völkerwanderung, Berlin, 1863-1864, 2 vols.

R. Pallmann, German geographer, historian, and publicist, born at Spremberg, June 14th, 1835. In his Völkerwanderung he attempts to prove that the migration of the nations who destroyed the Roman Empire was much less than has been supposed, and makes a very careful examination of the ancient authorities.