Philosophy as a way of life

ancient exegetical tradition. M.-D. Chenu3 has defined the specific character of Scholastics as "dialectics applied to the comprehension 9f a text: either a continuous text, in which case the goal is the writing of a commentary, or of a series of texts, which are selected to serve as bases and proofs for a given speculative construction. " 4 For this scholar, Scholastics is "a rational form of thought which is consciously and deliberately elaborated, taking as its starting-point a text considered as authoritative." 5 If we accent these definitions, we can assert that Scholastic thought did nothing other than adopt thought-processes already traditionally used in the majority of ancient philosophical schools. Conversely, we could also say that these schools were already engaging in Scholastic thought. Throughout the Middle Ages, instruction consisted essentially in textual commentary, whether of the Bible, Aristotle, Boethius, or the Sentences of Peter Lombard.

These facts have important consequences for the general interpretation of the history of philosophy, especially during its pre-Cartesian period. Insofar as philosophy was considered exegesis, the search for truth, throughout this period, was confounded with the search for the meaning of "authentic" texts; that is, of those texts considered as authoritative. Truth was contained within these text.�; it was the property of their authors, as it was also the property of those groups who recognized the authority of these authors, and who were consequently the "heirs" of this original truth.

Philosophical problems were expressed in exegetical terms. For example, we find Plotinus writing the following in the course of his investigation of the problem of evil: "We must try to find out in what sense Plato says that evils shall not pass away, and that their existence is necessary." 6 Typically, the rest of Plotinus' inquiry consists in a discussion of the terminology used by Plato in his Theaelelus.7 The famous battle over universals, which divided the Middle Ages, was based on the exegesis of a single phrase from Porphyry's lsagoge. It would be possible to make a list of all the texts which, upon being discussed, formed the basis of all ancient and medieval problematics. The list would not be long: it might contain a few passages from Plato (especially the Ti111aeus), Aristotle, Boethius, the first chapter of Genesis, and the prologue to the Gospel of John.

The fact that authentic texts raise questions is not due to any inherent defect. On the contrary: their obscurity, it was thought, was only the result of a technique used by a master, who wished to hint at a great many things at once, and therefore enclosed the "truth" in his formulations. Any potential m�aning, as long as it was coherent with what was considered to be the master's doctrine, was consequently held to be true. Charles Thurot's remark8

nbout the commentators on the grammarian Priscianus is applicable to all the philosopher cxegctcs:

I n their explanations of a text, the glossators did not seek to understand t hl' 11uthur111 1 huul(lu ; hut r111 hcr to tc11ch l he doctrine itself which they

74

Method

supposed to be contained in it. What they termed an "authentic" author could neither be mistaken, nor contradict himself, nor develop his arguments poorly, nor disagree with any other authentic author. The most forced exegesis was used in order to accommodate the letter of the text to what was considered the truth.9

It was believed that the truth had been "given" in the master's texts, and that all that had to be done was to bring it to light and explicate it. Plotinus, for example, writes: "These statements arc not new; they do not belong to the present time, but were made long ago, although not explicitly, and what we have said in this discussion has been an interpretation of them, relying on Plato's own writings for evidence that these views arc ancient. " 10 Here we encounter another aspect of the conception of truth implied by "exegetical"

philosophy. Each philosophical or religious school or group believed itself to be in possession of a traditional truth, communicated from the beginning by the divinity to a few wise men. Each therefore laid claim to being the legitimate depositary of the truth.