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The setf() method allows you to set various formatting states. For example, the method call setf(ios_base::fixed) places an object in the mode of using fixed decimal-point notation. The call setf(ios_base:showpoint) places an object in the mode of showing a trailing decimal point, even if the following digits are zeros. The precision() method indicates the number of figures to be shown to the right of the decimal (provided that the object is in fixed mode). All these settings stay in place unless they’re reset by another method call. The width() call sets the field width to be used for the next output action. This setting holds for displaying one value only, and then it reverts to the default. (The default is a field width of zero, which is then expanded to just fit the actual quantity being displayed.)

The file_it() function uses an interesting pair of method calls:

ios_base::fmtflags initial;

initial = os.setf(ios_base::fixed); // save initial formatting state

...

os.setf(initial);   // restore initial formatting state

The setf() method returns a copy of all the formatting settings in effect before the call was made. ios_base::fmtflags is a fancy name for the type needed to store this information. So the assignment to initial stores the settings that were in place before the file_it() function was called. The initial variable can then be used as an argument to setf() to reset all the formatting settings to this original value. Thus, the function restores the object to the state it had before being passed to file_it().

Knowing more about classes will help you understand better how these methods work and, why, for example, ios_base keeps popping up. But you don’t have to wait until Chapter 17 to use these methods.

One final point: Each object stores its own formatting settings. So when the program passes cout to file_it(), cout’s settings are altered and then restored. When the program passes fout to file_it(), fout’s settings are altered and then restored.

When to Use Reference Arguments

There are two main reasons for using reference arguments:

• To allow you to alter a data object in the calling function

• To speed up a program by passing a reference instead of an entire data object

The second reason is most important for larger data objects, such as structures and class objects. These two reasons are the same reasons you might have for using a pointer argument. This makes sense because reference arguments are really just a different interface for pointer-based code. So when should you use a reference? Use a pointer? Pass by value? The following are some guidelines.

A function uses passed data without modifying it:

• If the data object is small, such as a built-in data type or a small structure, pass it by value.

• If the data object is an array, use a pointer because that’s your only choice. Make the pointer a pointer to const.

• If the data object is a good-sized structure, use a const pointer or a const reference to increase program efficiency. You save the time and space needed to copy a structure or a class design. Make the pointer or reference const.

• If the data object is a class object, use a const reference. The semantics of class design often require using a reference, which is the main reason C++ added this feature. Thus, the standard way to pass class object arguments is by reference.

A function modifies data in the calling function:

• If the data object is a built-in data type, use a pointer. If you spot code like fixit(&x), where x is an int, it’s pretty clear that this function intends to modify x.

• If the data object is an array, use your only choice: a pointer.

• If the data object is a structure, use a reference or a pointer.

• If the data object is a class object, use a reference.

Of course, these are just guidelines, and there might be reasons for making different choices. For example, cin uses references for basic types so that you can use cin >> n instead of cin >> &n.

Default Arguments

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C++ Primer Plus
C++ Primer Plus

C++ Primer Plus is a carefully crafted, complete tutorial on one of the most significant and widely used programming languages today. An accessible and easy-to-use self-study guide, this book is appropriate for both serious students of programming as well as developers already proficient in other languages.The sixth edition of C++ Primer Plus has been updated and expanded to cover the latest developments in C++, including a detailed look at the new C++11 standard.Author and educator Stephen Prata has created an introduction to C++ that is instructive, clear, and insightful. Fundamental programming concepts are explained along with details of the C++ language. Many short, practical examples illustrate just one or two concepts at a time, encouraging readers to master new topics by immediately putting them to use.Review questions and programming exercises at the end of each chapter help readers zero in on the most critical information and digest the most difficult concepts.In C++ Primer Plus, you'll find depth, breadth, and a variety of teaching techniques and tools to enhance your learning:• A new detailed chapter on the changes and additional capabilities introduced in the C++11 standard• Complete, integrated discussion of both basic C language and additional C++ features• Clear guidance about when and why to use a feature• Hands-on learning with concise and simple examples that develop your understanding a concept or two at a time• Hundreds of practical sample programs• Review questions and programming exercises at the end of each chapter to test your understanding• Coverage of generic C++ gives you the greatest possible flexibility• Teaches the ISO standard, including discussions of templates, the Standard Template Library, the string class, exceptions, RTTI, and namespaces

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