C++ Primer Plus

Note how the n having the value 4 is stored at one location (memory address 0012FE0C in this example), the n having the value 3 is stored at a second location (memory address 0012FD34), and so on. Also note how the address of n for a particular level during the “Counting down” stage is the same as its address for the same level during the “Kaboom!” stage.

Recursion with Multiple Recursive Calls

Recursion is particularly useful for situations that call for repeatedly subdividing a task into two smaller, similar tasks. For example, consider this approach to drawing a ruler. Mark the two ends, locate the midpoint, and mark it. Then apply this same procedure to the left half of the ruler and then to the right half. If you want more subdivisions, apply the same procedure to each of the current subdivisions. This recursive approach is sometimes called the divide-and-conquer strategy. Listing 7.17 illustrates this approach, with the recursive function subdivide(). It uses a string initially filled with spaces except for a | character at each end. The main program uses a loop to call the subdivide() function six times, each time increasing the number of recursion levels and printing the resulting string. Thus, each line of output represents an additional level of recursion. To remind you that it’s an option, the program uses the std:: qualifier instead of a using directive.

Listing 7.17. ruler.cpp

// ruler.cpp -- using recursion to subdivide a ruler

#include

const int Len = 66;

const int Divs = 6;

void subdivide(char ar[], int low, int high, int level);

int main()

{

    char ruler[Len];

    int i;

    for (i = 1; i < Len - 2; i++)

        ruler[i] = ' ';

    ruler[Len - 1] = '\0';

    int max = Len - 2;

    int min = 0;

    ruler[min] = ruler[max] = '|';

    std::cout << ruler << std::endl;

    for (i = 1; i <= Divs; i++)

    {

        subdivide(ruler,min,max, i);

        std::cout << ruler << std::endl;

        for (int j = 1; j < Len - 2; j++)

            ruler[j] = ' ';  // reset to blank ruler

    }

    return 0;

}

void subdivide(char ar[], int low, int high, int level)

{

    if (level == 0)

        return;

    int mid = (high + low) / 2;

    ar[mid] = '|';

    subdivide(ar, low, mid, level - 1);

    subdivide(ar, mid, high, level - 1);

}

Here is the output of the program in Listing 7.17:

|                                                               |

|                               |                               |

|               |               |               |               |

|       |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |

|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||

Program Notes

The subdivide() function in Listing 7.17 uses the variable level to control the recursion level. When the function calls itself, it reduces level by one, and the function with a level of 0 terminates. Note that subdivide() calls itself twice, once for the left subdivision and once for the right subdivision. The original midpoint becomes the right end for one call and the left end for the other call. Notice that the number of calls grows geometrically. That is, one call generates two, which generate four calls, which generate eight, and so on. That’s why the level 6 call is able to fill in 64 elements (2⁶ = 64). This continued doubling of the number of function calls (and hence of the number of variables stored) make this form of recursion a poor choice if many levels of recursion are required. But it is an elegant and simple choice if the necessary levels of recursion are few.

Pointers to Functions

No discussion of C or C++ functions would be complete without mention of pointers to functions. We’ll take a quick look at this topic and leave the full exposition of the possibilities to more advanced texts.

Functions, like data items, have addresses. A function’s address is the memory address at which the stored machine language code for the function begins. Normally, it’s neither important nor useful for you or the user to know that address, but it can be useful to a program. For example, it’s possible to write a function that takes the address of another function as an argument. That enables the first function to find the second function and run it. This approach is more awkward than simply having the first function call the second one directly, but it leaves open the possibility of passing different function addresses at different times. That means the first function can use different functions at different times.

Function Pointer Basics